The Consequences of State Intervention: Forced Relocations and Sámi Rights in Sweden, 1919–2012

From the late 19th century up until the post-war period, Swedish Sámi policy was dominated by an image of the Sámi as nomadic reindeer herders. As nomads, the Sámi connection to the land they used was generally considered weaker than that of the settled population, and forced relocations were part of the Sámi policy for several decades as a solution to international developments that affected reindeer husbandry. These relocations have had and still have an effect on reindeer husbandry in Sweden today. The article examines and analyses forced relocations of Sámi reindeer herders, and specifically the effects of these relocations on the situation in one Reindeer Herding District: Vapsten. Strong intra-Sámi conflicts in the district today have historical roots in the forced relocations to the area, and the article analyses these and the role of the state both in causing the conflicts as well as solving them.&nbsp

The establishment of a scientific field: The history of reindeer husbandry research in Sweden 1900-1970

The focus of this article is the development of reindeer husbandry research as a scientific field within thenatural sciences, 1900-1970. Up until after World War II, research within this field was mostly carried out by socialscientists, while it was given very limited attention within the natural sciences. From the late 1940s this changed, as interest in reindeer husbandry research grew and more academic disciplines became involved, and during the following decades the field became established. The article examines research initiatives focused on reindeer husbandry within the natural sciences during the first half of the 20th century, discussing the motives for these studies as well as why they did not lead to the establishment of a scientific field. It then turns to the development after World War II, analyzing why reindeer husbandry research was established so quickly, and how the field developed up until 1970, both nationally within Sweden and as a Nordic cooperation

Att göra sin stämma hörd : Svenska Samernas Riksförbund, samerörelsen och svensk samepolitik 1950-1962

The formation of Svenska Samernas Riksförbund (SSR) [The National Association of Swedish Sami] on October the 3rd 1950 marked the beginning of a new development in the Sami movement in Sweden. During the first half of the 20th century the Sami movement in Sweden had had problems with maintaining continuity in their work and keeping an ongoing dialogue with the authorities due to the lack of a unifying organization. Through the creation of SSR the situation changed and the Sami movement was enabled to act with growing strength. The study focuses on the period 1950-1962, during which time SSR established itself in the political arena and began making its mark on the Swedish Sami policy. Four areas are singled out for analysis. The question of Sami rights and Sami livelihood is the first of these. Reindeer herding had been at the centre of the Sami policy since the late 19th century, and this continued during this period. The industry was also central in SSR, and the organization focussed most of its attention on issues concerning the reindeer herders. The industry had problems during the period, not least due to the exploitation of the Sami area for other purposes, but where SSR tried to emphasise these external factors when analyzing the problems, the authorities mainly focussed on internal problems. The traditional Sami rights to use the land for reindeer herding and hunting and fishing was also discussed, where SSR claimed a stronger right to the land, something the authorities did not support. Secondly, the image of the Sami was central in the discussions. The traditional image established in the Sami policy was that of the Sami as reindeer herders. This had the effect that the majority of the Sami, who were not reindeer herders, were excluded from the Sami context. During most of the examined period SSR did not challenge this image; it was only from 1960 and onwards that the organization tried to establish a broader view of the Sami within the policy area, a more inclusive view based on their position as an indigenous population in Sweden. The third area that has been examined was how SSR acted internally towards and treated different Sami groups. The outspoken ambition of the organization was to represent all Sami in Sweden, but in reality the reindeer herders and their interests dominated the work of SSR. This created tension within the organization, since the non-reindeer herding Sami felt that their problems were neglected by SSR. However, the organization also had problems with getting the support of all the reindeer herders as well, since both the forest Sami and many of the reindeer herders not working actively within SSR felt that the organization did not really represent them. Fourthly, the impact of the demands put forward by SSR on the Sami policy has been examined. The organization rather quickly became established as an actor in the policy area, and was given a role as a consultative body. This, however, did not mean that SSR was successful in getting results based on its demands. The positive results of the work of the organization were few and small, but, nevertheless, the fact that SSR became established in the policy area meant that the authorities to a larger extent had to take the opinion of the Sami into consideration and motivate the direction of the Sami policy more thoroughly.digitalisering@um

Time begins anew : an analysis of the etnopolitical mobilization among the Sami in Sweden, 1900-1950

This study deals with the ethnopolitical mobilization among the Sami in Sweden during the first half of the 20th century. The investigation focus on why this mobilization took place, the demands the Sami made, and the strategies used to achieve these goals. Opposition towards the Swedish Sami policy was the most important reason for the political mobilization among the Sami. Both the formation of the Sami policy at the central administrative level, and the implementation of the policy at the regional and local level by the Lapp administration were criticised. During the first half of the period of investigation the Sami protests focused on policy decisions at central government level. During the later half of the period, it was the actions of the Lapp administration that triggered Sami activity. The central demands brought forward by the Sami movement concerned the position of the Sami in Swedish society. At the beginning of the period the Swedish Sami policy was based on the so called "Lapp shall remain Lapp" ideology. The Sami were looked upon as a reindeer herders by nature, who were weak and could not protect themselves against civilization, which was viewed as a threat to the cultural survival of the Sami. Therefore, they were to be protected by being segregated from the surrounding society. Only the reindeer herding Sami, however, were considered to be Sami which meant that a majority of the Sami population was not included in the Swedish Sami policy. A cultural boundary was drawn, which separated the Sami population into two large segments. Because of this, the main demands of the Sami movement were that the Sami should be granted an equal position in the Swedish society and that the Sami policy should include more aspects than just reindeer herding.Two main strategies were adopted by the Sami leaders to achieve the goals of the Sami movement. The first was to try to create a network of local Sami societies within a national Sami organization. As in Swedish society group interests were represented by a number of different organizations, Sami organizations were a precondition if the Sami were to be able to hold a dialogue with the Swedish authorities. However, during the period of investigation the Sami movement failed in its attempts to form a national Sami organization, which weakened the movement. The second strategy was directed at achieving more limited gains through goal-oriented actions, where the Sami were mobilized for shorter periods behind different demands. This second strategy was more successful during the period of investigation. However, ultimately the creation of a national Sami organization, was found to be a requirement if the Sami movement was to be able to influence the Swedish Sami policy. The formation of Svenska Samernas Riksförbund (National Union of the Swedish Sami) in 1950 was therefore an important step for the Sami movement

Att göra sin stämma hörd : Svenska Samernas Riksförbund, samerörelsen och svensk samepolitik 1950-1962

The formation of Svenska Samernas Riksförbund (SSR) [The National Association of Swedish Sami] on October the 3rd 1950 marked the beginning of a new development in the Sami movement in Sweden. During the first half of the 20th century the Sami movement in Sweden had had problems with maintaining continuity in their work and keeping an ongoing dialogue with the authorities due to the lack of a unifying organization. Through the creation of SSR the situation changed and the Sami movement was enabled to act with growing strength. The study focuses on the period 1950-1962, during which time SSR established itself in the political arena and began making its mark on the Swedish Sami policy. Four areas are singled out for analysis. The question of Sami rights and Sami livelihood is the first of these. Reindeer herding had been at the centre of the Sami policy since the late 19th century, and this continued during this period. The industry was also central in SSR, and the organization focussed most of its attention on issues concerning the reindeer herders. The industry had problems during the period, not least due to the exploitation of the Sami area for other purposes, but where SSR tried to emphasise these external factors when analyzing the problems, the authorities mainly focussed on internal problems. The traditional Sami rights to use the land for reindeer herding and hunting and fishing was also discussed, where SSR claimed a stronger right to the land, something the authorities did not support. Secondly, the image of the Sami was central in the discussions. The traditional image established in the Sami policy was that of the Sami as reindeer herders. This had the effect that the majority of the Sami, who were not reindeer herders, were excluded from the Sami context. During most of the examined period SSR did not challenge this image; it was only from 1960 and onwards that the organization tried to establish a broader view of the Sami within the policy area, a more inclusive view based on their position as an indigenous population in Sweden. The third area that has been examined was how SSR acted internally towards and treated different Sami groups. The outspoken ambition of the organization was to represent all Sami in Sweden, but in reality the reindeer herders and their interests dominated the work of SSR. This created tension within the organization, since the non-reindeer herding Sami felt that their problems were neglected by SSR. However, the organization also had problems with getting the support of all the reindeer herders as well, since both the forest Sami and many of the reindeer herders not working actively within SSR felt that the organization did not really represent them. Fourthly, the impact of the demands put forward by SSR on the Sami policy has been examined. The organization rather quickly became established as an actor in the policy area, and was given a role as a consultative body. This, however, did not mean that SSR was successful in getting results based on its demands. The positive results of the work of the organization were few and small, but, nevertheless, the fact that SSR became established in the policy area meant that the authorities to a larger extent had to take the opinion of the Sami into consideration and motivate the direction of the Sami policy more thoroughly.digitalisering@um

Time begins anew : an analysis of the etnopolitical mobilization among the Sami in Sweden, 1900-1950

This study deals with the ethnopolitical mobilization among the Sami in Sweden during the first half of the 20th century. The investigation focus on why this mobilization took place, the demands the Sami made, and the strategies used to achieve these goals. Opposition towards the Swedish Sami policy was the most important reason for the political mobilization among the Sami. Both the formation of the Sami policy at the central administrative level, and the implementation of the policy at the regional and local level by the Lapp administration were criticised. During the first half of the period of investigation the Sami protests focused on policy decisions at central government level. During the later half of the period, it was the actions of the Lapp administration that triggered Sami activity. The central demands brought forward by the Sami movement concerned the position of the Sami in Swedish society. At the beginning of the period the Swedish Sami policy was based on the so called "Lapp shall remain Lapp" ideology. The Sami were looked upon as a reindeer herders by nature, who were weak and could not protect themselves against civilization, which was viewed as a threat to the cultural survival of the Sami. Therefore, they were to be protected by being segregated from the surrounding society. Only the reindeer herding Sami, however, were considered to be Sami which meant that a majority of the Sami population was not included in the Swedish Sami policy. A cultural boundary was drawn, which separated the Sami population into two large segments. Because of this, the main demands of the Sami movement were that the Sami should be granted an equal position in the Swedish society and that the Sami policy should include more aspects than just reindeer herding.Two main strategies were adopted by the Sami leaders to achieve the goals of the Sami movement. The first was to try to create a network of local Sami societies within a national Sami organization. As in Swedish society group interests were represented by a number of different organizations, Sami organizations were a precondition if the Sami were to be able to hold a dialogue with the Swedish authorities. However, during the period of investigation the Sami movement failed in its attempts to form a national Sami organization, which weakened the movement. The second strategy was directed at achieving more limited gains through goal-oriented actions, where the Sami were mobilized for shorter periods behind different demands. This second strategy was more successful during the period of investigation. However, ultimately the creation of a national Sami organization, was found to be a requirement if the Sami movement was to be able to influence the Swedish Sami policy. The formation of Svenska Samernas Riksförbund (National Union of the Swedish Sami) in 1950 was therefore an important step for the Sami movement